4+Cell+Biology+and+Energy+Transformations

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__**Chapter 4**__
//**What limits cell size? Be able to calculate SA:VOL ratios for cells. How does SA:VOL ratio change with cell size?** The cell's size is limited because the greater the surface area to volume ratio, the more efficient the cell is. The greater the cell is, the lower the ratio. Hooke- wrote __Micrographia__ about the microscopic world; discovered cells vonLeewenkoek- drew "animalcules" Schleiden- Scwann- Cell Theory- all living things are composed of cells; all cells come from other cells Prokaryotic- bacteria and archaea; much less complicated Eukaryotic- plants, animals, protists, fungi; much bigger with more types of organelles
 * What were the contributions of Hooke, vonLeewenhoek, Schleiden and Scwann? What are the postulates of the cell theory?**
 * Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.**
 * Be able to label a diagram of a prokaryotic cell.**

Animal Cells- has flgellum, lysosomes and centrioles Plant Cells- has central vacuole, cell wall and chloroplasts
 * Differentiate between animal and plant cells.**
 * Be able to label diagrams of animal and plant cells.**


 * Be able to describe the structures and functions of ALL the cell organelles on the chart handed out in class.**//

__**Chapter 5**__
//**Be able to differentiate between exergonic and endergonic reactions.**// Exergonic reaction- An energy-releasing chemical reaction in which the reactants contain more potential energy that the products. The reaction releases an amount of energy equal to the difference in ptoential energy between the reactants and the products. Endergonic reaction-An energy-requiring chemical reaction, which yields products with more potential energy than the reactants. The amount of energy stored in the products equals the difference betweenthe potential energy in the reactants and that in the products.

//**What are the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics?**// 1st Law- The total amount of energy in the universe is constant and that energy can be transferred and transformed, but never destroyed 2nd Law- Energy conversions reduce the order of the universe, increasing its entropy

//**Be able to differentiate between potential and kinetic energy.**// Potential- Stored energy; the capacity to perform work that matter possesses because of its location or arrangement. Kinetic- Energy of motion; the energy of a mass of matter that is moving. Moving matter performs work by transferring its motion to other matter.

//**Where is the energy stored in glucose or ATP? In the bonds**


 * What is ATP? What is it composed of? What is ADP? How do they differ? How is energy released from ATP?**

Phosphorylation- The transfer of a phosphate group, usually from ATP, to a molecule. Nearly all cellular work depends on ATP energizing other molecules by phosphorylation.
 * What is phosphorylation?**//

//**What does energy coupling mean? What types of reactions are coupled?** Energy Coupling is using the energy from an exergonic reaction to power an endergonic reaction A protein that serves as a biological catalyst, changing the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed into a different molecule in the process.
 * What is an enzyme?**//

//**What is Energy of Activation? How do enzymes affect EA?** It is the energy needed to start a chemical reaction (overcome the reaction barrier.) Enzymes lower the amount of EA needed to start a reaction.

A specific reactant that an enzyme acts on. It binds to it with induced fit. It binds on the active site Competitive inhibition- a chemical resembles enzymes normal subtrate and blocks active site Noncompetitive inhibition- a chemical attaches to the enzyme somewhere other than the active site and distorts the shape of the active site, blocking the substrate from entering A control mechanism in which a chemical reaction, metabolic pathway, or hormone-secreting gland is inhibited by the products of the reaction, pathway, or gland. As the concentration of the products builds up, the product molecules themselves inhibit the process that produced them.
 * What is a substrate and how does an enzyme bind to it? Where does a substrate bind to the enzyme?**
 * Differentiate between competitive and noncompetitive inhibition of enzymes. How do pesticides and antibiotics inhibit certain enzymes?**
 * What is negative feedback of enzymes?**//

//**Describe the makeup of the plasma membrane. What is the fluid mosaic model and why is the name appropriate?** Lipids (Phospholipids mainly); the fluid mosaic model is the model of cellular membrane embedded with diverse proteins; it's appropriate because it resembles a mosaic two chains of phospholipids with hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails with the tails adjacent and the heads in the outer region
 * Describe the structure of a phospholipid; composition, hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, arrangement in a membrane.**


 * Be able to describe some functions of membrane-associated proteins.**

it only allows som substances to cross through the membrane easier than others; small non-charged substances can pass without help, while large, charged particles need assistance
 * What does it mean for a membrane to be selectively permeable? What can get through and what is excluded?**
 * Be able to label a diagram of the cross section of a membrane including phospholipids, proteins (peripheral, integral, etc…), carbohydrates (glycoproteins and glycolipids) and cholesterol.**


 * What contributes to the fluidity of membranes?**

Diffusion- tendency for particles of any kind to pread out evenly in an available space moving from [high] to [low] Osmosis- diffusion of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane Osmoregulation- control of water balance Hypertonic- a solution with higher solute concentration Hypotonic- a solution with lower solute concentration Isotonic- solution and cell have the same concentrations Passive diffusion- a cell doesn't work to diffuse molecules across a membrane// //Facilitated diffusion- when a protein helps a substance go through a membrane// Active transport- cell uses energy to transport a substance across the membrane //**Differentiate between endocytosis and exocytosis, and between phagocytosis and pinocytosis**. Endocytosis- the cell imports particles through a membrane enclosed vesicle Exocytosis- the cell exports bulky materials through a membrane enclosed vesicle Phagocytosis- cellular eating Pinocytosis- cellular drinking plasma membrane forms a pit and once it surrounds the molecules the membrane pinches together to form a vesicle
 * Differentiate between diffusion and osmosis.**
 * Define osmoregulation and know why it is important. What characteristic of life does this represent?**
 * Differentiate between hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions and be able to work problems.**
 * Compare and contrast passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport. Pay particular attention to what is being moved, in which direction the movement occurs, if a helper protein is involved, and if energy is expended in the process.**
 * What is receptor mediated endocytosis.**//

__Chapter 6__
ultimate source of energy: sunlight problem: can't store sunlight and sunlight itself can't do cellular work--> solar energy must be converted to chemical energy (glucose) problem: glucose can't do cellular work-->must be broken down and energy released this whole process is cellular respiration takes place in the mitochandria and in the cytoplasm C6H12O6 + O2 --> H2O + CO2 + ATP C is being oxidized because it is loosing H O is being reduced because it is gaining H (OIL RIG) SLP-no membrane and catalyzed by an enzyme OP- uses mitchondrial membrane, driven by proton gradient, uses oxygen as a final electron acceptor, and accounts for 90% of ATP production
 * Be able to describe how cellular respiration fits into the “big picture”.**
 * Be able to write the complete balanced formula for aerobic cellular respiration. What is being reduced and what is being oxidized?**
 * How do substrate level phosphorylation and chemiosmotic phosphorylation differ from one another?**
 * Know the inputs and outputs of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain. Where does each of these occur? Which can occur in aerobic conditions and which can occur in anaerobic conditions?**


 * Know the “big picture” version of glycolysis and the krebs cycle…what is being used, what is being produced, how many ATP used/made, etc…**


 * How does the electron transport chain produce ATP? Where does this occur? How much ATP is used/made?**


 * What is the final electron acceptor? What happens if it is unavailable?**

rotenone-blocks the first proton pump in the ETC DNP- makes the innermembrance leaky so protons can shortcut the ATP sythase cyanide and CO- block the last prton pump in the ETC anaerobic CR- no O2 present; glycolysis occurs and Kreb's cycle gets backed up and stops -two alternate pathways following glycolysis-->formation of lactic acid (animals) or formation of CO2 + EtOH (fermentation of yeast) animals-lactic acid yeast-alcohol
 * How do various poisons such as rotenone, DNP, CO and cyanide block aerobic cellular respiration?**
 * What is anaerobic cellular respiration? Where does it occur? In what types of organisms does it occur?**
 * What is produced by anaerobic respiration in animals? …in bacteria and yeast?**
 * What is the underlying purpose of anaerobic respiration? How much ATP is used/made?**

strict-requires anaerobic conditions and is poisoned by O2 facultative-makes ATP either by firmantation or by oxi. phosphorylation, depending on if O2 is available
 * Differentiate between strict and facultative anaerobes.**
 * Know the Reading Questions.**